G Gh-rTDH, biopsies revealed the preservation of liver parenchymal architecture with mild congestion over the periportal areas and spotty liver cell damage around the portal vein. The damage was clearly located in the periportal area of the liver (zone 1 of the liver acinus) (Figure 8B). Moreover, (��)-Hexaconazole supplier severe congestion with hemorrhage was noted in mice that were treated with 100 mg GhrTDH (Figure 8C). Similar findings were noted for each mouse group that was biopsied.3.6 18F-FDG PET/CT scans reveal decreases in and recovery of metabolism in the livers of treated animals. A series of 3 images was acquired for 15900046 each mouse,including CT, PET, and a merge of the CT and PET after the 18FFDG PET/CT scan. The red color in the merge images indicates 18 F-FDG uptake by cells (Figure 9A). We found that hepatic 18Fwere not elevated after administration of E. coli-TOPO. However, the mean GOT and GPT levels were clearly elevated in the groups treated with G. hollisae or E. coli-TOPO-tdh, and the highest levels were observed 8 hr after bacterial treatment (data not shown). Higher concentrations of bacteria caused more severe liver injury. Acute hemolytic status, poor albumin synthesis, and more strongly MedChemExpress 78919-13-8 induced immune system function were noted in mice that were fed G. hollisae and E. coli-TOPO-tdh. These patterns are similar to those observed in mice treated with Gh-rTDH. There was no pathological damage to the liver parenchyma in mice treated with E. coli-TOPO (Figure 8D). By contrast, spotty liver cell damage around the portal vein was noted in mice that were treated with G. hollisae (Figure 8E) or E. coli-TOPO-tdh (Figure 8F). The 18F-FDG PET/CT images revealed that the mice treated with G. hollisae (Figure 9D) or E. coli-TOPO-tdh (Figure 9E) exhibited much less 18 F-FDG hepatic uptake than those treated with E. coli-TOPOHepatotoxicity of Thermostable Direct HemolysinFigure 7. Gh-rTDH might not cause cardiotoxicity and nephrotoxicity. The levels of (A) creatinine, (B) CK-MB, and (C) troponin I did not significantly increase when mice were treated with different doses of Gh-rTDH. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0056226.g(Figure 9F). Overall, the patterns of hepatotoxicity were notably similar between mice infected with G. hollisae or treated with GhrTDH. E. coli-TOPO did not cause significant liver injury.DiscussionIn this study, both human and mouse liver cells were treated with G. hollisae TDH, and the in vitro hepatotoxicity was demonstrated by direct observation and the MTT assay. The hepatotoxicity caused by 1326631 Gh-rTDH was both dose- and timedependent. Very low concentrations of TDH (.1026 mg/ml) damaged liver cells. We also noted that the MTT assays yielded a similar pattern over 12, 16, 24, and 48 hr under different toxin concentrations. One possible explanation is that when the concentration of toxin increased, cells were not only killed by this toxin but also probably suffered cell division suppression. Therefore, when we prolonged the treatment durations, the number of surviving cells did not clearly differ between the 4 time points. Naim et al. reported that V. parahaemolyticus TDH 
caused Rat-1 cell injury and that TDH might induce cytotoxicity by acting inside the cells [24]. In this study, we noted that the GhrTDH-FITC was taken up by liver cells via binding around the margin of the cell and was translocated to the nucleus within a short time period. Therefore, the destruction caused by G. hollisae TDH is notably quick and lethal to the liver cells.G Gh-rTDH, biopsies revealed the preservation of liver parenchymal architecture with mild congestion over the periportal areas and spotty liver cell damage around the portal vein. The damage was clearly located in the periportal area of the liver (zone 1 of the liver acinus) (Figure 8B). Moreover, severe congestion with hemorrhage was noted in mice that were treated with 100 mg GhrTDH (Figure 8C). Similar findings were noted for each mouse group that was biopsied.3.6 18F-FDG PET/CT scans reveal decreases in and recovery of metabolism in the livers of treated animals. A series of 3 images was acquired for 15900046 each mouse,including CT, PET, and a merge of the CT and PET after the 18FFDG PET/CT scan. The red color in the merge images indicates 18 F-FDG uptake by cells (Figure 9A). We found that hepatic 18Fwere not elevated after administration of E. coli-TOPO. However, the mean GOT and GPT levels were clearly elevated in the groups treated with G. hollisae or E. coli-TOPO-tdh, and the highest levels were observed 8 hr after bacterial treatment (data not shown). Higher concentrations of bacteria caused more severe liver 
injury. Acute hemolytic status, poor albumin synthesis, and more strongly induced immune system function were noted in mice that were fed G. hollisae and E. coli-TOPO-tdh. These patterns are similar to those observed in mice treated with Gh-rTDH. There was no pathological damage to the liver parenchyma in mice treated with E. coli-TOPO (Figure 8D). By contrast, spotty liver cell damage around the portal vein was noted in mice that were treated with G. hollisae (Figure 8E) or E. coli-TOPO-tdh (Figure 8F). The 18F-FDG PET/CT images revealed that the mice treated with G. hollisae (Figure 9D) or E. coli-TOPO-tdh (Figure 9E) exhibited much less 18 F-FDG hepatic uptake than those treated with E. coli-TOPOHepatotoxicity of Thermostable Direct HemolysinFigure 7. Gh-rTDH might not cause cardiotoxicity and nephrotoxicity. The levels of (A) creatinine, (B) CK-MB, and (C) troponin I did not significantly increase when mice were treated with different doses of Gh-rTDH. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0056226.g(Figure 9F). Overall, the patterns of hepatotoxicity were notably similar between mice infected with G. hollisae or treated with GhrTDH. E. coli-TOPO did not cause significant liver injury.DiscussionIn this study, both human and mouse liver cells were treated with G. hollisae TDH, and the in vitro hepatotoxicity was demonstrated by direct observation and the MTT assay. The hepatotoxicity caused by 1326631 Gh-rTDH was both dose- and timedependent. Very low concentrations of TDH (.1026 mg/ml) damaged liver cells. We also noted that the MTT assays yielded a similar pattern over 12, 16, 24, and 48 hr under different toxin concentrations. One possible explanation is that when the concentration of toxin increased, cells were not only killed by this toxin but also probably suffered cell division suppression. Therefore, when we prolonged the treatment durations, the number of surviving cells did not clearly differ between the 4 time points. Naim et al. reported that V. parahaemolyticus TDH caused Rat-1 cell injury and that TDH might induce cytotoxicity by acting inside the cells [24]. In this study, we noted that the GhrTDH-FITC was taken up by liver cells via binding around the margin of the cell and was translocated to the nucleus within a short time period. Therefore, the destruction caused by G. hollisae TDH is notably quick and lethal to the liver cells.