not in TAK1-dependent pathway. IRAK-1 and IRAK-2 are known to form Myddosomes with MyD88IRAK-4 to mediate TLR7-induced TAK1-dependent NFkB activation. Since IRAK-M was able to mediate NFkB activation in the absence of IRAK-1 and IRAK-2, and interacted with MyD88 and IRAK-4, we proposed the & 2013 European Molecular Biology Organization formation of IRAK-M Myddosome. Through protein modelling, we predicted the critical residues for interaction interface between DDs of IRAK-M PubMed ID:http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19828691 and IRAK-4. Mutations in the conserved W74, E71 and Q78 in helix H4 of the IRAK-M DD greatly reduced the interaction of IRAK-M with IRAK-4 and also diminished the ability of IRAK-M to mediate NFkB activation. These results strongly suggest that IRAK-M probably indeed has the ability to directly interact with MyD88IRAK-4, like IRAK-1/2, acting as an intermediate signalling component to transmit signal from the receptor to downstream signalling cascade to mediate NFkB activation. One important question is what is the biological significance of the IRAK-1/2-mediated TAK1- versus IRAKM-mediated MEKK3-dependent pathway We have previously shown that the kinase activity of IRAK-4 is required TAK1-, but not MEKK3-dependent NFkB activation. Furthermore, IRAK-4 coordinately regulates TAK1-dependent NFkB activation and IRAK-M mediates TLR/IL-1R-induced NFjB activation and cytokine production H Zhou et al polysomal fractionation, we found that the mRNAs of cytokines and chemokines were more actively translated in the absence of IRAK-M, indicating the critical role of IRAK-M in translational control. Consistent with the previous finding about the essential role of IRAK-2 in TLR-mediated translational control, we found IRAK-M specially interacts with IRAK-2, but not with IRAK-1. These results suggest that in addition to the formation of IRAK-M Myddosome, IRAK-M probably has the ability to dock onto IRAK-2 Myddosome, thereby interfering IRAK-2-dependent downstream signalling. While this study has provided important insight into the mechanistic roles of IRAK-M in TLR signalling, many questions still remain regarding the functional relationship of the IRAK family members. Future studies are needed to determine how IRAK-M specifically interacts with IRAK-2, but not with IRAK-1 and what purchase Scutellarein determines the distribution and dynamics of IRAK-M in IRAK-M Myddosome versus IRAK-2 Myddosome. It will be important to determine how the newly found functions of IRAK-M will impact on the interpretation of the role of IRAK-M in inflammatory responses in vivo and the drug development of inhibitors for different IRAKs. Materials and methods Biological reagents and cell culture Recombinant human IL-1 was purchased from R&D system. CpG B oligodeoxynucleotide and Pam3CSK4 were purchased from Invivogen. LPS was purchased from Sigma-Aldrich and R848 was obtained from GLSynthesis company. Antibodies against phosphorylated IkBa, JNK, IKKa/b, Mnk1, MK2, eIF4E, MKK3 /MKK6, total IkBa and SOCS1 were purchased from Cell Signaling. Antibody to IRAK-2 was purchased from Abcam. Antibody to IRAK-4 was purchased from Enzo. Antibody to FLAG and haemagglutinin were purchased & 2013 European Molecular Biology Organization IRAK-M mediates TLR/IL-1R-induced NFjB activation 
and cytokine production H Zhou et al from Sigma. Antibody to MEKK3 was purchased from BD Biosciences Pharmingen. Antibodies against IRAK, TAK1, SHIP1 and Actin were from Santa Cruz Biotechnologies. MG132 was purchased from Calbiochem. 293-derived IRAK-1-de